Genealogy: Records & Resources

Researching your African American ancestors in the census can be a different, sometimes difficult, process than researching ancestors from other groups. One factor that will determine the type of records available is their status as enslaved or free. From 1790 to 1860, slaves were usually not named in the census, and only free African Americans would have been named. 1870 is the first census after the 13th Amendment, which outlawed slavery. Please note that in this tab, you will see several words used in the census to refer to race that are now considered outdated and offensive. You will see race referred to in a variety of ways in the census, such as "Race," "Color," and "Colour." 

This document from the National Archives lists the exact fields that were collected for each population census.

Important dates:
1790 to 1840: Free African Americans would be listed along the same terms as white households. The head of household would be named, and the other household members would be numbered. Enslaved African Americans would not be in the census.

1850 and 1860: In general, 1850 is an important census because it is the first one to list each household member individually (instead of just the head of household); however, it did not list the names of enslaved individuals. Members of free African American households would be noted in the Free Inhabitants Schedules (which is what the general population schedule was called). These two years of the census had separate Slave Schedules. For the Slave Schedules, the census taker would document the slave owner and tally slaves numerically in the Slave Schedules. This means that they are usually more useful to trace slaveholding ancestors. However, some census takers chose to list individual slaves in their lists. You would have to check individually to see if your ancestor is named or not.

Source: 1860 Slave Census Schedule, Magisterial district 9, Fauquier, VA. page 12. This example shows an instance where the census taker included a slave's name, "Tom," in the Slave Census. In this case, it is possibly because of the man's age, which is "100." Some census takers chose to list the names of slaves who were over 100 years old.

If your ancestors are not named, these schedules can still be used to corroborate information about enslaved ancestors. To see an example of how these schedules can be used in research, take a look at this blog post.

Slave Schedules exist for the historical "slave states": Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia.

The 1850 and 1860 Mortality Census Schedules can also include African Americans, and these schedules were special census schedules counting the people who died in the previous year. For both 1850 and 1860, the Mortality Census included a "Color" (race) column, and "White, Black, or Mulatto" (an outdated term for a person of mixed white and black ancestry) were the options. There is also a column for "Free or Slave," so these schedules can include enslaved and free ancestors. The inclusion of slaves was unfortunately inconsistent and did depend on the enumerators, but it does seem to include more names than the Slave Schedules. 

Source: 1850 Mortality Census Schedule, Fayetville, GA, page 1. This example shows two slaves listed: the Calloways. Their "Colour" in column 4 is "B" (Black), and their status in column 5 is "S" (Slave) under "Free or Slave." This space tends to be left blank if the answer is "Free."

You can find out where to access these special schedules, the Slave and Mortality Schedules, in the Miscellaneous Schedules tab.

1870: This census is a landmark for researching African American ancestors because it is the first after slavery ended. It is often one of the first official documents with a former slave's surname. Pay close attention to approximate birth dates and places, which can help you locate other records. Column 6 has the field for "Color." For African American ancestors, you would probably want to check for "Black" or "Mulatto" (an outdated term for a person of mixed white and black ancestry) entries, which would be marked as "B" or "M," respectively.

Source: 1870 Federal Census, Auburn, AL, page 9. This example shows the "Color" column is number 6. 

1880 to 1940: The census has collected more information in its later decades, which varies by decade, such as information about every member of the household, relationships to the head of household, and the birth locations of parents. For the years 1880 to 1920, the options for African Americans for race was "Black" or "Mulatto" (an outdated term for a person of mixed white and black ancestry), with the exception of 1900 which only had "Black." For the years 1930 and 1940, the option in the census for African Americans for race was "Negro."

Don't forget to also check the Miscellaneous Schedules tab, especially for the years 1870+, after slavery was abolished.

For further research:
New England Historic Genealogical Society: African American Genealogy
FamilySearch.org: African American Genealogy

Researching your American Indian ancestors in the census can be a rewarding experience, and it unfortunately can be difficult at times. For the census, American Indians in the general population were counted before those on reservations, so where your ancestors lived can make a big difference in the records available. Another challenge you might encounter is searching by their Indian name; if nothing comes up, you could also try searching under the anglicized version of their name, if you know it. This webpage from the National Archives goes into greater detail about what was collected for each year of the census for American Indians. Please note that this guide uses the term "American Indian" because it is the term used by the federal government. You will see race referred to in a variety of ways in the census, such as "Race," "Color," and "Colour." You will see several words to refer to race and assumptions that are now considered outdated and offensive.

This document from the National Archives lists the exact fields that were collected for each population census.

Important dates:
1850 and 1860: These two years would rarely identify someone as "Indian" in the race field. It was not one of the "official" races counted. There is a small chance you could find an American Ancestor in the 1860 census if they were citizens, taxed, and had renounced tribal rule.

1870: American Indians in the general population were counted, and few, if any, were counted from reservations. You can tell an individual's race was American Indian by using column 6, "Color," which would list "I" or "In/Ind." 

Source: 1870 Federal Census Schedule, Arapahoe County, CO, page 3. This example shows "Charles Pumphry," and his race is listed in column 6: "Ind" (Indian).

1880: American Indians in the general population were counted, and few, if any, were counted from reservations. You can tell an individual's race was American Indian by using column 4, "Color," which would list "I" or "In."

Source: 1880 Federal Census Schedule, Waganachasee, MI, page 3. This example shows the "Naganasha" family, and column 4 for "Color" lists theirs as "I" (Indian).

1900: This is an important census for American Indian research. This is the first time American Indians in the general population and on reservations would be systematically counted. There was also a special Indian Schedule for reservations that included information such as the year the person acquired citizenship and the parents' tribes. American Indians living in the general population were not counted on this special schedule; they were to be counted in the general census. When you are searching for the Indian Schedule, these schedules are included in the 1900 Census; they are not separate.  Because both the general population and reservations are in one census, your ancestor should show up in a search of the 1900 Census, and where your ancestor lived would determine the information recorded about them. You can read more about the special schedule here.

Source: 1900 Federal Census Schedule, Mashpee, MA, page 2. This example shows some individuals living in the general population (not a reservation) with "In" (Indian) in the 5th column, "Color or Race."

Source: 1900 Federal Census Schedule, Yuma, Arizona Territory, page 2. This example shows the schedule that was done for American Indians living on reservations. The top section is identical to the 1900 Census for the general population. The bottom section has a corresponding schedule: "Special Inquiries Relating to Indians." The individuals on the top are numbered, and they correspond to the numbers on the bottom where they ask additional questions about the same person (so 1 on the top and 1 on the bottom sections are the same person, 2 and 2 are the same person, etc.).

1910: This census includes American Indians in the general population and on reservations. This census includes a special schedule as well that looks similar to 1900's schedules, with a top section and a bottom section. The information collected is a little different.

Source: 1910 Federal Census Schedule, New Bedford, MA, page 14. This example shows the general population, and "Color or Race" is marked in the 6th column with an "In" (Indian).

1920: This census includes American Indians in the general population and on reservations and has no special schedule.

1930: This census includes American Indians in the general population and on reservations and has no special schedule. This census did have some special instructions for the mother and father columns. Instead of listing the mother and father, the instructions for American Indians was to list the individual's "degree of Indian blood" in the "father" column (#19) and their "tribe" in the "mother" column (#20). Row 12 lists "Color or Race."

Source: 1930 Federal Census, Oconaluft, NC, page 1. This example from the 1930 Census shows how the "Father" and "Mother" columns were changed for American Indian individuals. Instead of listing parents, they listed "degree of Indian blood" for column 19 and "tribe" for column 20. The race is listed in column 12. In these examples, column 19 says "Full Blood" and column 20 says "Cherokee."

1940: This census includes American Indians in the general population and on reservations and has no special schedule.

For further research:
Native Americans in the Census, 1860-1890​
National Archives: American Indian Records in the National Archives​
FamilySearch: American Indian Genealogy
U.S. Department of the Interior: Trace Indian Ancestry

Women can be challenging to find in the census but not for the reasons you might think. Women were not intentionally excluded from the census. So, why can they be so difficult to find? The reasons have to do with how family groups have operated in the United States. It's because of the patriarchy system -  a system dominated by men, meaning women were often not the head of household. Men were often named as heads of household, and women were often nameless marks in columns. 

1850 is the year the census began naming every single person in the household. Before that year, the census only documented the name of the head of household and counted the other individuals in the household by their ages and genders. 

This fact means that before 1850, it is going to be difficult to find a named woman in the census. The circumstances for a woman to be the head of a household would be rare, since a single or widowed woman would be likely to join another household.

Did you know the census does not only count the population? The census you know is now officially called the "Census of Population and Housing," meaning it counts the population and housing in the country. There have actually been several other schedules, when the need has arisen to count other things, such as crops the country is growing and goods industries are producing. 

This tab will go through each schedule and tell you the years available and the basic information included. Because they are part of the census, they are searchable by person's name in many databases. Another way to find your ancestors is to look at the years available and cross examine it with your family tree. Do you have any farmers, merchants, or veterans in your family who overlap with these records? If you are researching ancestors in a specific state, take a look at this list of schedules by state to see which schedules were produced in that state.

Contents:
Agricultural
Defective, Dependent, Delinquent Classes
Industry and Manufacturing
Mortality
Slave
Social Statistics
Veterans
Non-population schedules for states with 1885 federal census

Agricultural

Source: 1880 Agricultural Census Schedule, Dallas, Michigan, page 3.

The agricultural schedules were produced as a way to measure the crops being grown in the country. If you have ancestors who were farmers in this time period, try looking for them in the agricultural schedules to see what crops they grew and livestock they owned. You could also check the manufacturing schedules to see if your farmer ancestors are there. For example, if they used their cow's milk to sell cheese. 

Agricultural schedules were produced for the following years: 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880.
You can access it from home: In HeritageQuest by logging in with your library card, in one collection for Non-Population Schedules.

Defective, Dependent, Delinquent Classes

Source: 1880 Defective, Dependent, Delinquent Classes Census Schedule, Bedford, PA, Homeless Children, page 3. These census schedules are separated out into supplementary schedules. For example, this one is for "Homeless Children."

The purpose of this schedule was basically to count the number of people in the country who might need aid, such as people with disabilities or who were in poverty. This schedule uses many outdated terms that are now considered offensive. This schedule is a unique one because 1880 is the only year it was done, and there were seven different supplementary schedules: "Insane Inhabitants" (the common term for someone with a mental illness), "Idiots" (the common term for someone with intellectual or developmental delays),  "Deaf-mutes," Blind," "Homeless Children," "Inhabitants in Prison," "Pauper and Indigent Inhabitants" (people who were unable to support themselves and didn't receive support from family). This article goes into depth about researching this particular census schedule.

Defective, Dependent, Delinquent Classes schedules were produced for the following year: 1880.
You can access it from home: In HeritageQuest by logging in with your library card.

Industry and Manufacturing

Source: 1870, Industry Census Schedule, Omaha, NE, page 1.

The manufacturing schedules were produced to measure the goods being created in the country. If you have ancestors involved in a business, check the manufacturing schedules to see if you can find them. Keep in mind that your ancestor does not have to be a gigantic merchant to be listed in the schedules; the threshold was businesses that made over $500 of goods. That means your ancestor who tanned leather as their own source of income might be in there.

Manufacturing schedules were produced for the following years: 1820, 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880. 
You can access it from home: In HeritageQuest by logging in with your library card, in one collection for Non-Population Schedules.
The 1820 schedules are scattered within the regular 1820 population census; it does not have a separate schedule. You can find the 1820 Census in HeritageQuest and here for free in FamilySearch.

Mortality

Source: 1850 Mortality Census Schedule, Washington D.C., page 3. This schedule gives you information such as the cause of death, the number of days the person was ill, and the person's occupation.

Mortality schedules listed the deaths of people who died in the year preceding the census. These schedules are valuable because they pre-date a lot of states' vital records, so if you have an ancestor listed here, this may be the only death record available. For the mortality schedules, it is worth noting the exact dates the census was officially taken for these years: June 1 of the year of the census. So, the 1850 census should include deaths between June 1, 1849 and May 31, 1850. However, sometimes names of people who died in surrounding dates were included.

Mortality Schedules were produced for the following years: 1850, 1860, 1870, 1880.
You can access it from home: In HeritageQuest by logging in with your library card.
For free in FamilySearch: 1850 (the other years are not online there).

Slave

Source: 1860 Slave Census Schedule, Norfolk City, VA, page 1. The slave owners are named, and the slaves are not named; they are only numbered and described in the following columns such as "sex" and "age."

The purpose of the Slave Schedules was to count slaves, and they listed the names of the slave owners and counted the slaves in the household. This means that they are usually more useful to trace slave owners than slaves themselves. Most of the Slave Schedules only list the slave owners; however, some census takers chose to list individual slaves' first names in their lists. You would have to check individually to see if your enslaved ancestor is named or not.

Slave Schedules were produced for the years: 1850 and 1860.
You can access it from home: In HeritageQuest by logging in with your library card.
For free in FamilySearch: 1850 and 1860.

Social Statistics
These schedules are unique because they will not list individuals. They are a great tool to give you an idea of the area where an ancestor lived or for other research. The statistics are divided in rough lines that don't follow a set order, such as by towns, cities, or parts of counties. The statistics counted include information like: names of newspapers, names of libraries and number of books, names and number of colleges, average monthly wage for  a farmhand, and number of criminals.

Social Statistics Schedules were produced for the years: 1850, 1860, 1870.

You can access it from home: In HeritageQuest by logging in with your library card, in one collection for Non-Population Schedules.

Veterans 

Source: 1890 Veterans Census Schedule, Chelsea, MA, page 3

This schedule was part of the 1890 census, which was mostly lost in a fire. A much higher percent of the Veterans Schedule survived than that of the 1890 population census. It was a special list that was extracted from the population schedule to count surviving Union soldiers, sailors, marines, and their widows. It gave information such as the veteran's rank, regiment, and length of service.

The Veterans Schedule was produced for the following year: 1890.
You can access it from home: In HeritageQuest by logging in with your library card.
For free in FamilySearch: 1890.

Non-population schedules for states with 1885 censuses
In 1885, Congress offered Federal assistance to states and territories that wanted to take a census. Five states took them up on the offer. The format was similar to the 1880 census. These censuses are unique in that they are technically state censuses, but they used federal funds to do them. You can read more about it here: The Forgotten Federal Census of 1885.

The 1885 censuses contain the following non-population schedules: Agriculture, Manufactures, and Mortality.

These schedules are available for the following five states: Colorado, Dakota Territory, Florida, Nebraska, and New Mexico Territory.

You can access it from home: 
For free in FamilySearch: Colorado, Florida, Nebraska, New Mexico

The Dakota Territory census is not on FamilySearch, and you can find it on Ancestry Library Edition. If you want to search for these censuses in Ancestry Library Edition at the BPL, you will find them under each state's collection as a state census. They are not with the federal censuses.

Source: Boston Globe, January 11, 1921, page 1

The 1890 census is one that lives in infamy to researchers. In January 1921, a fire in the Commerce Department Building in Washington D.C. building destroyed most of the only copy of the 1890 United States Census. The outcry for this travesty is part of why we have the National Archives today. You can read more about the fire here.

If you're working your way backward through your ancestors' census records, you'll likely encounter the year 1890 at some point. You can find out which parts of the 1890 census survived here. It is a very small amount totaling just a few thousand names. Luckily, you will not be the first person to hit this roadblock, and other resources have compiled some 1890 census replacements.

Ancestry.com has compiled an exhaustive collection of 1890 replacements, such as local directories and state census records. You can use Ancestry Library Edition at any Boston Public Library location.

These articles cover the topic:
How you can overcome the tragically lost 1890 census
Cyndi's List - 1890 Census Substitutes
5 Substitutions for the 1890 Census

States with 1885 censuses
You have the 1885 census as a resource if your ancestor was alive in 1885 and happened to live in one of the following five states: Colorado, Dakota Territory, Florida, Nebraska, and New Mexico Territory. In 1885, Congress offered Federal assistance to states and territories that wanted to take a census. It is only five years before the 1890 census, so it offers a closer glimpse in time than the 1880 federal census. These censuses are unique in that they are technically state censuses, but they used federal funds to do them. The format was similar to the 1880 census. You can read more about this census here.

You can access it from home: 
For free in FamilySearch: Colorado, Florida, Nebraska, New Mexico

The Dakota Territory census is not on FamilySearch, and you can find it on Ancestry Library Edition. If you want to search for these censuses in Ancestry Library Edition at the BPL, you will find them under each state's collection as a state census. They are not with the federal censuses.

1890 Veterans Schedule
As part of the 1890 census, a Veterans Schedule of Union veterans was taken. While part of this schedule was lost in the fire as well, much less of it was destroyed than the population census. It lost approximately sixteen of the 49 states states and territories to the fire, versus the population census which lost over 99% of its census schedules. This census counted Union veterans and their widows.
Find out more about this schedule, including where to use it, in the Miscellaneous Schedules Tab.